Roman Catholic

The Church traces its history to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles, and sees the bishops of the Church as the successors of the Apostles in general, and the Pope as the successor of Saint Peter, leader of the Apostles, in particular.[19] The first known use of the term "Catholic Church" was in a letter by Ignatius of Antioch in 107, who wrote: "Where the bishop appears, there let the people be, just as where Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."[20]

Additionally, Catholic writers list a number of quotations from early Church Fathers suggesting the See of Rome had jurisdictional authority or primacy over other churches,[21] while Orthodox writers dispute this claim which was one of the main issues behind the East-West Schism, historically considering the Pope first among equals.[22] Although, numerous pre-schism Eastern Church leaders appear to contradict the concept.[3]

Central to the doctrines of the Catholic Church is Apostolic Succession, the belief that the bishops are the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles, through the historically unbroken chain of consecration (see: Holy Orders). The New Testament contains warnings against teachings considered to be only masquerading as Christianity,[23] and shows how reference was made to the leaders of the church to decide what was true doctrine.[24] The Catholic Church teaches that it is the continuation of those who remained faithful to the apostolic and episcopal leadership and rejected false teachings.

Constantinian Era and Christological Councils

After an initial period of sporadic but intense persecution, Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, when Constantine I issued the Edict of Milan in 313. Constantine was instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address the Arian heresy and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still currently used by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglican Communion, and various Protestant churches. In 326, Pope Sylvester I consecrated the first Basilica of St. Peter built by Constantine.

On 27 February 380, Emperor Theodosius I enacted a law establishing Catholic Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and ordering others to be called heretics.[25] This time period in history also marked the rise in Christological Councils which determined much of the theology of the Church. In 382, the Council of Rome set the Canon of the Bible, listing the accepted books of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Also, the Council of Ephesus in 431 declared that Jesus existed both as Man and God simultaneously, clarifying his status in the Trinity. The meaning of the Nicene Creed was also declared a permanent doctrine of the Church.

Medieval Period

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, the Church underwent a time of missionary activity and expansion. In 480, St. Benedict began his Monastic Rule, setting out regulations for the establishment of monasteries. Monasticism was highly successful, and gave rise to various centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland and Gaul, and contributed to the Carolingian Renaissance. Later, cathedral schools developed into Universities (see University of Paris, University of Oxford, and University of Bologna), the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning.

In 452, Pope Leo the Great met Attila the Hun, and dissuaded him from sacking Rome. However, in 455, the Vandals sacked Rome.

Catholicism spread among the Germanic peoples (initially in competition with Arianism), the Celts, the Slavic peoples; the Vikings and other Scandinavians; the Hungarians, the Baltic peoples and the Finns.

The Middle Ages brought about major Church changes and statements. Pope Symmachus, in 502, ruled that the laity should no longer vote for new popes, and that only higher clergy (now cardinals) should be allowed. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration. When iconoclasm became a divisive issue throughout eastern Europe in the early eighth century, the Church established the Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) to determine its stance on the subject.

Crusades

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade.

Beginning in 1095 the Crusades, a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, sanctioned by the Papacy, began under the pontificate of Urban II in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. This and the subsequent crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking and occupation of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.

East-West Schism

Through a gradual process over a number of centuries, the church underwent a great schism that divided the church into a Western (Latin) branch, which has been known as the Catholic Church, and an Eastern (Greek) branch, which has become known as the Orthodox Church. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably the Filioque clause and papal primacy of jurisdiction. [26]

The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Orthodox refused to accept the decisions. The two churches remain in schism to the present day, although excommunications were lifted mutually between Rome and Constantinople in 1965, and efforts to end the schism continue. Some Eastern churches have reunited with the Roman Catholic Church, acknowledging papal primacy, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the Pope. (See Eastern Catholic Churches.)[27]

Inquisition

Beginning around 1184, and continuing through the Protestant Reformation, a number of historical movements[citation needed] involving the Catholic Church, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were aimed at securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion, and sometimes prosecution, of alleged heretics. A conviction of heresy, seen as treason against Christendom, could involve penalties ranging from a fine to a sentence of capital punishment such as burning at the stake administered by the state. Historians distinguish between the Medieval Inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Roman Inquisition, and the Portuguese Inquisition as distinct historical events. The extent of the Inquisition's activity, and particularly the exact number of deaths, has been the subject of much subsequent propaganda. (See Black Legend.)

Renaissance and Reformation

The Renaissance brought about the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492, and the Catholic Church sought to spread the faith throughout the colonies. Pope Alexander VI awarded sole colonial rights over most of the New World to Spain.

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses, which protested some key points of Catholic doctrine and the sale of indulgences. His efforts against the Church developed into a movement called the Protestant Reformation. Other repudiated issues included the primacy of the pope, clerical celibacy, the seven sacraments and various other Catholic doctrines and practices, as well as abuses (such as simony and the sale of indulgences) that were common at the time.

In 1534, the English Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy making the King of England Supreme Head of the Church of England Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales, and Ireland were dissolved. Pope Paul III, reacting to this and other schismatic issues, excommunicated King Henry VIII in 1538, marking a decisive schism between the Catholic Church and England.

Reformers within the Catholic Church launched the Counter Reformation or Catholic Reformation, a period of doctrinal clarification, reform of the clergy and the liturgy, and re-evangelization begun by the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent was convened by Pope Paul III in 1545, and its reforms provided the central theme for the next 300 years of Catholic history. The period emphasized catechesis and missionary work, in which the Jesuit and Franciscan orders were prominent. Catholicism spread worldwide, at pace with European colonialism: to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania.

Modernity

Throughout the centuries, the Church has responded to people or groups attempting to change core beliefs. Some of these opponents were declared heretical. The 18th and 19th century church found itself facing not only the teachings of Protestantism, but also Enlightenment and Modernist teachings about the nature of the human person, the state, and morality. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, and the increased concern about the conditions of urban workers, 19th and 20th century popes issued encyclicals (notably Rerum Novarum) explicating Catholic Social Teaching. The First Vatican Council (1869-1870) affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility which Catholics hold to be in continuity with the history of Petrine supremacy in the church.

Second Vatican Council Reforms

Pope John XXIII, opening the Second Vatican Council in 1962

The Catholic Church undertook a comprehensive "reform" during and immediately after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), which was convened by Pope John XXIII. The Council stressed what it saw as positive rather than what it saw as negative in other Christian communities, other religions, and the aspirations of human beings in general. It was a primarily pastoral but authoritative council,[28] called to make the historical teachings of the Catholic Church clear to the modern world.

It issued documents on a number of topics, including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity, and religious freedom. It also issued directions for a revision of the liturgy, including permission for the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin in the Mass and the other sacraments.[29] For consequent changes in the liturgy, see Mass of Paul VI.